Everything about Turkic People totally explained
|poptime= More than 160 million
|popplace=
Asia Minor and the
Middle East, the
Caucasus,
Central Asia,
Eastern Europe and the
Balkans,
Siberia,
Western China,
Western Mongolia and as immigrant communities in
Australia,
North America, and
Western Europe
|langs=
Turkic Languages
|rels=
Islam (predominantly),
Atheism,
Agnosticism,
Buddhism,
Christianity,
Judaism,
Shamanism,
Tengriism
}}
The
Turkic peoples are a collection of peoples residing in northern, central and western
Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the
Turkic language family. The term
Turkic represents a broad
ethno-linguistic group of people and includes existing societies such as the
Kazakhs,
Uzbeks,
Kyrgyz,
Uyghur,
Azerbaijani,
Turkmen, and
Turkish peoples, as well as historical societies such as the
Kipchaks,
Avars,
Bulgars,
Huns,
Seljuks,
Khazars,
Ottomans and
Timurids.
Many of the Turkic peoples have their homelands in
Central Asia, where the Turkic peoples originated from, but since then Turkic languages have spread, through migrations and conquests, to other locations including present-day
Turkey. While the term
Turk may refer to a member of any Turkic people, the term
Turkish usually refers specifically to the people and language of
Turkey.
Geographical distribution
The Turkic languages constitute a
language family of some thirty languages, spoken across a vast area from
Eastern Europe and the
Mediterranean to
Siberia and Western
China.
Some 180 million people have a Turkic language as their native language; an additional 20 million people speak a Turkic language as a
second language. The Turkic language with the greatest number of speakers is
Turkish proper, or
Anatolian Turkish, the speakers of which account for about 40% of all Turkic speakers. in the
Russian Federation including
Bashkortostan,
Tatarstan,
Chuvashia,
Khakassia,
Tuva,
Yakutia, the
Altai Republic, the
Altai Krai,
Kabardino-Balkaria, and
Karachayevo-Cherkessiya. Each of these subdivisions has its own flag, parliament, laws, and official state language (in addition to
Russian).
The
Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in western China and the autonomous region of
Gagauzia, located within eastern
Moldova and bordering Ukraine to the north, are two major autonomous Turkic regions. The
Autonomous Republic of Crimea within Ukraine is a home of
Crimean Tatars. In addition, there are several Turkic-inhabited regions in
Iran,
Iraq,
Georgia,
Bulgaria,
F.Y.R.O.Macedonia,
Greece,
Tajikistan,
Afghanistan, and western
Mongolia.
In the age of nationalism, Turkic speakers were among the first
Muslim peoples to take up Western ideas of
liberalism and
secular ideologies.
Pan-Turkism first sprang up at the end of the nineteenth century in the
Russian Empire and was advanced by leading Turkic intellectuals like
Crimean Tatar İsmail Gaspıralı, Azerbaijan philosophers like
Mirza Fatali Akhundov and
Tatar Yusuf Akçura, as a reaction to
Panslavist and
Russification policies of the Russian Empire. The first fully democratic and secular republics in the Islamic world were Turkic: the ill-fated
Idel-Ural State established in 1917, the
Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918 (both annexed and absorbed by the
Soviet Union), and in 1923
Republic of Turkey. In 1991 Azerbaijan became an independent Azerbaijan Republic.
The Turks of Turkey are over 70 million, while the second largest Turkic people are the
Azerbaijanis, numbering 20.5 to 33 million worldwide; most of them live in northwestern Iran ("
Iranian Azerbaijan") and the Republic of Azerbaijan.
Turkic roots
The first historical text to mention the Turks was from the standpoint of the Chinese, who mentioned trade of Turk tribes with the
Sogdians along the
Silk Road. The
Xiongnu mentioned in
Han Dynasty records may have been
Proto-Turkic speakers,
followed by the
Hun hordes of
Attila that tried to conquer Europe. On the other hand, recent genetics research dated 2003 confirms the studies indicating that the Turkic peoples originated from the same area and therefore are possibly related with the
Xiongnu.
The rock art of the
Yinshan and
Helanshan is dated from the
9th millennium BC to
19th century. It consists mainly of engraved signs (petroglyphs) and only minimally of painted images. Ma Liqing compared the petroglyphs (which he presumed to be the sole extant example of possible Xiongnu writings), and the
Orkhon script (the earliest known
Turkic alphabet) recently, and argued a new connection between both of them.
Excavations conducted between 1924-1925, in
Noin-Ula kurgans located in
Selenga River in the northern
Mongolian hills north of
Ulan Bator, produced objects with over twenty carved characters, which were either identical or very similar to that of to the runic letters of the
Turkic Orkhon script discovered in the
Orkhon Valley.
The first recorded use of "Turk" as a political name is a sixth-century reference to the word now pronounced in Modern Chinese as
Tujue. It is believed that some Turkic tribes, such as
Khazars and
Pechenegs, probably lived as nomads for many years before establishing a political state (
Göktürk empire).
Turkic peoples originally used their own alphabets, like Orkhon and Yenisey runiform, and later the
Uyghur alphabet. The oldest inscription was found near the
Issyk river in
Kyrgyzstan and has been dated to 500 BC. The traditional national and cultural symbols of the Turkic peoples include the
star and crescent, used as a symbol of Turks since pre-Islamic times when they practised
Shamanism; wolves, a part of Turkic mythology and tradition; as well as the color blue, iron, and fire.
Four hundred years after the collapse of northern
Xiongnu power in
Inner Asia, leadership of the Turkic peoples was taken over by the Göktürks. Formerly an element of the Xiongnu nomadic confederation, the Göktürks inherited their traditions and administrative experience. From
552 to
745, Göktürk leadership bound together the
nomadic Turkic tribes into an empire, which eventually collapsed due to a series of dynastic conflicts. The great difference between the Göktürk Khanate and its Xiongnu predecessor was that the Göktürks' temporary
khans from the
Ashina clan were
subordinate to a
sovereign authority that was left in the hands of a council of tribal chiefs. The
Khanate received missionaries from the
Buddhists,
Manicheans, and
Nestorian Christians, but retained their original
shamanistic religion,
Tengriism. The Göktürks were the first Turkic people to write
their language in a
runic script.
Migrations
The Turkic peoples and the related groups migrated west towards
Eastern Europe,
Iranian plateau and
Anatolia. Turks or Turkish people are among those who migrated early from what is known today as
Mongolia to modern Turkey but also among the late-arrival peoples; they also participated in the Crusades. After many battles they established their own state and later created the Ottoman Empire; their tactics were all-out sieges and invasions.
Nomenclature
The first known mention of the term
Turk applied to a Turkic group was in reference to the
Göktürks in the sixth century. A letter by the
Chinese Emperor written to a Göktürk Khan named
Ishbara in 585 described him as "the Great Turk Khan." The
Orhun inscriptions (AD 735) use the terms
Turk and
Turuk.
Previous use of similar terms are of unknown significance, although some strongly feel that they're evidence of the historical continuity of the term and the people as a linguistic unit since early times. This includes a Chinese record of 1328 BC referring to a neighbouring people as
Tu-Kiu.
In modern Turkey, a distinction is made between "Turks" and the "Turkic peoples" in loosely speaking: the term
Türk corresponds specifically to the "Turkish-speaking" people (in this context, "Turkish-speaking" is considered the same as "Turkic-speaking"), while the term
Türki refers generally to the people of modern "Turkic Republics" (
Türki Cumhuriyetler or
Türk Cumhuriyetleri). However, the proper usage of the term is based on
the linguistic classification in order to avoid any
political sense. In short, the term Turkic can be used for Turk or vice versa.
Traditions about nomenclature
.
According to
Mahmud of Kashgar, an eleventh century Turkic scholar, and various other traditional Islamic scholars and historians, the name "Turk" stems from Tur, one of the sons of Japheth, and comes from the same lineage as Gomer (Cimmerians) and Ashkenaz (Scythians, Ishkuz) who, according to tradition, were some of the earliest Turks. For millennia, a long string of historical references specifically linked Herodotus’ Scythians with various Türkic tribes, such as the Huns, Türks, Khazars etc. . Between 400 CE and the 16th century the Byzantine sources use the name Σκΰθαι in reference to twelve different Türkic peoples (most modern scholars believe these tribes to have been Iranian). A similar name, Dur, appears in mediaeval
Hungarian legend as a legendary chieftain of the Caucasian
Alans (Arran, Iron) whose daughters supposedly bred with the Magyar ancestors
Hunor and Magor.
In the
Divan ul-Lughat at-Turk (Turkic dictionary) of Mahmud of Kashgar,
Alp Er Tunga, is identified with the character
Afrasiab ("Frangasyan" in the
Avesta) in Persian literature, a descendant of the character named
Tur in the Persian epic
Shahnameh. Alp Er Tunga is a mythical hero in Turkic tradition; the Göktürks of the sixth century carried on the tradition of Alp Er Tunga and they too had a myth according to which they themselves were descendants of a wolf.
History
It is generally believed that the first Turkic people were native to a region extending from
Central Asia to
Siberia. Some scholars contend that the
Huns were one of the earlier Turkic tribes, while others support
Mongolic origin for the Huns. Otto Maenchen-Helfen's
linguistic studies also support a Turkic origin for the Huns. The main migration of Turks, who were among the ancient inhabitants of
Turkestan, occurred in medieval times, when they spread across most of
Asia and into
Europe and the
Middle East.
The precise date of the initial expansion from the early homeland remains unknown. The first state known as "Turk", giving its name to many states and peoples afterwards, was that of the
Göktürks (
gog = "blue" or "celestial") in the sixth century AD. The head of the
Asena clan led his people from Li-jien (modern Zhelai Zhai) to the
Juan Juan seeking inclusion in their confederacy and protection from China. His tribe were famed metal smiths and were granted land near a mountain quarry which looked like a helmet, from which they were said to have gotten their name 突厥(tūjué). A century later their power had increased such that they conquered the Juan Juan and set about establishing their Gök Empire. The Mughal dynasty was notable for the ability of its rulers, who through seven generations maintained a record of unusual talent, and for its administrative organization. A further distinction was the attempt of the Mughals to integrate Hindus and Muslims into a united Indian state.
The Ottoman Empire gradually grew weaker in the face of maladministration, repeated wars with
Russia and
Austro-Hungary, and the emergence of nationalist movements in the
Balkans, and it finally gave way after
World War I to the present-day republic of
Turkey. The Turkic alphabets are divided into four groups, the best known of them is the
Orkhon version of the Enisei group.
The
Turkic language family is traditionally considered to be part of the proposed
Altaic language family. The Altaic
language family includes 66
languages spoken by about 348 million people, mostly in and around
Central Asia and northeast Asia.
The various Turkic languages are usually considered in geographical groupings: the
Oghuz (or Southwestern) languages, the
Kypchak (or Northwestern) languages, the Eastern languages (like
Uygur), the Northern languages (like
Altay and
Yakut), and divergent languages (like
Chuvash). The high mobility and intermixing of Turkic peoples in history makes an exact classification extremely difficult.
The
Turkish language belongs to the Oghuz subfamily of Turkic. It is for the most part mutually intelligible with the other Oghuz languages, which include
Azeri,
Gagauz,
Turkmen and
Urum, and to a varying extent with the other Turkic languages.
Mythology
Turkic mythology is the
mythology of the Turkic peoples that spoke
Turkic languages which are a subfamily of the
Altaic language family.
Tengriism and other
Shamanistic religions had been the dominant religion for most of history.
In one tradition, described in the ancient
Zoroastrian text called the
Zend-Avesta — similar to the biblical story of
Noah — the Turkic peoples are descendants of "Tur" or "Tura", a grandson of Yima, who was the sole survivor of a catastrophe that depopulated the Earth.
Animals
The
Wolf symbolizes honour and is also considered the father of most Turkic peoples.
Asena (Ashina Tuwu) is the wolf mother of
Tumen Il-Qağan, the first Khan of the
Göktürks.
The
Horse is also one of the main figures of Turkic mythology. Türks consider the horse an extension of the human, one creature.
The
Dragon, also expressed as a
Snake or
Lizard, is the symbol of might and power. It is believed, especially in mountainous
Central Asia, that dragons still live in the mountains of
Tian-Shan (Tangri Tagh) and
Altay. Dragons also symbolize the god
Tengri (Tanrı) in ancient Turkic tradition, although dragons themselves aren't worshipped as gods.
Personalities
Geser (Ges'r, Kesar) is a Mongolian religious epic about
'Geser' (also known as
'Bukhe Beligte') a Turkic prophet who taught Türks the new monotheistic religion
Tengriism. It is unknown when he lived, and there are not many historical documents that mention him. Tengriism isn't approved by most Muslim scholars, but
sura 108 of the Quran has the name
Al-Kawthar,in which the word
kawthar could potentially be read as 'Käusar', which may be an Arabisation of the Turkic name 'Geser'. The name of this sura is conventionally interpreted as "all goods" or "abundance", but this isn't certain and many scholars have different opinions on this sura.
The legend of
Timur (Temir) is the most ancient and well-known. Timur found a strange stone that fell from the sky, an
iron ore
meteorite. He was a smith and decided to make a sword of it. Few knew about iron in Asia before then. He tried to make a sword from it by using the usual
bronze sword making process. He mentioned that this material, iron, was very easy to change and manipulate, though it was even stronger than bronze.
Today, the word "temir" or "timur" means "iron". The melting process was known before in
Egypt, but it wasn't used that widely in Asia, because of the very high iron price (much higher than
gold) in the Mediterranian and Europe at that time.
Bai-Ulgan (Bai-Ulgen, Ulgen, Ülgen, Ulgan) is a Turkic and Mongolian creator-deity.
In the Bible,
Togarmah, son of
Gomer, was ancestor of the Turkic-speaking peoples. His sons Ujur (Uyghur: Mongol-Turks), Tauris, Avar, Uauz (Oghuz Turks), Bizal, Tarna,
Khazar, Janur,
Bulgar, and Sawir (
Sabir, a Turkic people, probably of Hunnic origin) are the mythical founders of tribes that once lived around the Black and Caspian Seas.
Religion
Various pre-Islamic Turkic civilizations of the sixth century adhered to
Shamanist and
Tengriist traditions. The Shamanist religion is based on spiritual and natural elements of earth. Tengriism involves belief in
Tengri as the god who ruled over the skies. These civilizations also followed the Zoroastrian religion, especially in
Azerbaijan, as well as Buddhism and Judaism.
Today, most Turks are
Sunni Muslims. These include the majority of Balkan Turks, Balkars, Bashkorts, Crimean Tatars, Karachay, Kazaks, Kumuk, Kyrgyz, Nogay, Tatars (Kazan Tatars), Turkmens, Turks of Turkey, Uygurs, and Uzbeks. The Azerbaijanis of the
Republic of Azerbaijan and
Iranian Azerbaijan are the only major Turkic-speaking people that traditionally adhere to the
Shia sect of Islam. The
Qashqay nomads and
Khorasani Turks as well as various Turkic tribes spread across Iran are also Shia Muslims. The
Alevis of Turkey are the largest religious minority in the country. Their belief system is a branch
Shia Twelver theology.
The major Christian-Turkic peoples are the
Chuvash of
Chuvashia and the
Gagauz (Gökoğuz) of
Moldova. Many
Karaim Turks of Eastern Europe are
Jewish, and there are Turks of Jewish backgrounds who live in major cities such as Istanbul, Ankara and Baku. In the Siberian region, the Altay, some
Tuvan and
Hakas are Tengriist, having kept the original religion of Turkic peoples. The Yakuts of Yakutia in northeastern Siberia are traditionally Shamanists, yet many have converted to Christianity. The
Sari Uygurs (Yellow Uygurs) of western China, as well as the Tuvans of Russia are the only remaining Buddhist Turkic peoples. In addition, there are small scattered populations of Turks belonging to other religions such as the
Bahá'í Faith and Zoroastrianism.
Even though many Turkic peoples became
Muslims under the influence of
Sufis, often of Shi'a persuasion, most Turkic people today are
Sunni Muslims—although a significant number in Turkey are
Alevis. Alevi Turks, who were once primarily dwelling in eastern Anatolia, are today concentrated in major urban centers in western Turkey with the increased urbanism.
The traditional religion of the
Chuvash of Russia, while containing many ancient Turkic concepts, also shares some elements with
Zoroastrianism,
Khazar Judaism, and Islam. The Chuvash religious calendar cycle and the agrarian cult that it was based on combined ancestor worship and worship of earth, water and vegetation. The Chuvash converted to
Eastern Orthodox Christianity for the most part in the second half of the nineteenth century. As a result, festivals and rites were made to coincide with Orthodox feasts, and Christian rites replaced their traditional counterparts. A minority of the Chuvash still profess their traditional faith.
Some Turkic peoples (particularly in the Russian autonomous regions and republics of
Altay,
Khakassia, and
Tuva) are largely Tengriists. Tengriism was the predominant religion of the different Turkic branches prior to the eighth century, when the majority accepted Islam.
The
Gagauz people of
Moldova are largely Christians.
There are Turkic-speaking groups of Jews, such as the
Crimean Karaites.
There are also a few Buddhist (for example
Tuvans), Jewish, Zoroastrian, and Bahá'í Turkic peoples today.
The traditional
Inner Asian cults, commonly referred to as shamanism, survive in many places, often submerged in other religions. In post-Soviet Siberia, 300 years after their forced conversion, the
Yakuts (Sakha) and others have completely rejected
Orthodox Christianity in favor of a revived shamanism.
Remark: The name
Tengri has been changed to
Tanrı in modern Turkish (as spoken in
Turkey), the same as in
Azeri, literally meaning "God" in English. However, traditionally, God is referred to as
Allah in most daily usage. The word
tengri / tanrı is still in use by citizens of
Azerbaijan and
Turkey, where Islam is the dominant religion.
Ethnic subdivisions
The distribution of peoples of Turkic cultural background ranges from
Siberia, where the
Yakuts reside, across Central Asia, to Eastern Europe. Presently, the largest groups of Turkic people live throughout Central Asia—
Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan,
Turkmenistan,
Uzbekistan, and
Azerbaijan, in addition to
Turkey. Additionally, Turkic peoples are found within
Crimea, the
Xinjiang region of western
China, northern
Iraq,
Iran,
Israel,
Russia,
Afghanistan,
Cyprus, and the
Balkans:
Moldova,
Greece,
Bulgaria,
Romania, and former
Yugoslavia. A small number of Turkic people also live in
Vilnius, the capital of
Lithuania. There are also considerable populations of Turkic people (originating mostly from
Turkey) in
Germany,
United States, and
Australia, largely because of migrations during the twentieth century.
An exact line between the different Turkic peoples can't easily be drawn. The following is a non-comprehensive list of the major groups:
Sometimes the above list is grouped into six branches: the
Oghuz Turks,
Kipchak,
Karluk,
Siberian,
Chuvash, and
Sakha/Yakut branches. The Oghuz have been termed Western Turks, while the remaining five, in such a classificatory scheme, are called Eastern Turks.
One of the major difficulties perceived by many who try to classify the various Turkic languages and dialects is the impact
Soviet and particularly
Stalinist nationality policies—the creation of new national demarcations, suppression of languages and writing scripts, and mass deportations—had on the ethnic mix in previously multicultural regions like
Khwarezm, the
Fergana Valley, and
Caucasia. Many of the above-mentioned classifications are therefore by no means universally accepted, either in detail or in general. Another aspect often debated is the influence of
Pan-Turkism, and the emerging
nationalism in the newly independent Central Asian republics, on the perception of ethnic divisions.
Physical appearance
The Turkic peoples possess physical features ranging from
Caucasoid to
Northern Mongoloid. In western Turkic lands, such as Turkey and Azerbaijan, a great many people look "European" and "Mediterranean". In Turkey, people with light-coloured eyes such as blue, green, hazel, or gray and blond or brown hair are common. Caucasoid and Mongoloid facial structure is common among some Central Asian Turkic groups, such as
Kazakhs,
Uzbeks, and
Turkmen.
There has been much debate about the
racial nature of the original Turkic-speaking ancestors, with some in the past presuming a "Ural-Altaic race" with Caucasoid features at one end of the spectrum and Mongoloid features at the other.
Gallery
Image:Flag of Eastern Turkistan.svg|The "Kokbayraq" flag. This flag is used by Uyghurs as a symbol of the East Turkestan independence movement. It is almost identical to the flag of Turkey except with a blue background. The Chinese government prohibits using the flag in the country.
Image:Fig5Ishjamts p166R2.gif|2nd century BC - 2nd century AD, characters of Hun- Syr-Tardush (Syanbi) script (Mongolia and Inner Mongolia), N. Ishjatms, "Nomads In Eastern Central Asia", in the "History of civilizations of Central Asia", Volume 2, Fig 5, p. 166, UNESCO Publishing, 1996, ISBN 92-3-102846-4
Image:ToyokAndRjukokuAlphabets.gif|Oldest known Turkic alphabet listings, Rjukoku and Toyok manuscripts. Toyok manuscript transliterates Turkic alphabet into the Uyghur alphabet. Per I.L. Kyzlasov, Runic Scripts of Eurasian Steppes, Moscow, Eastern Literature, 1994, ISBN 5-02-017741-5.
Image:Göktürk Epigraph Copy in Gazi University Ankara.JPG|A copy of Göktürk (Orkhon) Epigraph in Ankara
Image:Whirlingdervishes.JPG|Whirling dervishes in Turkey
Image:Qashqai caravan halt.jpg|Qashqai caravan halt in Iran
Image:Gfdfgd.jpg|Karachay patriarchs in the nineteenth century
Image:Ataturk13.JPG|Mustafa Kemal Ataturk with his soldiers at Anafartalar, Çanakkale, 1915
Image:Armed students in Gökçeada.jpg|Armed students of "Gökçeada Öğretmen
Image:Tatar woman XVIII century.jpg|Kazan Tatar woman, 18th century
Image:Taniec tatarski.jpg|Crimean Tatar soldier fighting with the soldier of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Image:Chlebowski-Bajazyt w niewoli.jpg|Sultan Bayezid captured by Timur after the Battle of Ankara
Image:Benjamin-Constant-The Entry of Mahomet II into Constantinople-1876.jpg|Mehmed II enters Constantinople with his army.
Image:EmperorSuleiman.jpg|Suleiman the Magnificent
Image:Tokhtamysh.jpg|Golden Horde invasion of Russia in 1382.
Image:Babur.jpg| Babur, founder of the Mughal dynasty.
People
Image:Mehmetoz.jpg|Turkish man
Image:Azerigirls.JPG|Azerbaijani girls
Image:Qashqai women spinning.jpg|Qashqai women spinning (Iran)
Image:UzbekStudents.jpg|Uzbek students
Image:Turkman girl in national dress.jpg|Turkmen girl
Image:Aitys.jpg|Kazakh people (performing traditional music)
Image:Kyrgyz Manaschi, Karakol.jpg|Kyrgyz man performing epic poem
Image:Khotan-melikawat-chicas-d03.jpg|Uyghur girl (China)
Image:Tuvan Family.jpg|Tuvan family in traditional clothing (Russia)
Notes and references
Golden, Peter B. "Some Thoughts on the Origins of the Turks and the Shaping of the Turkic Peoples". (2006) In: Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World. Ed. Victor H. Mair. University of Hawai'i Press. Pp. 136-157. ISBN-13: ISBN 978-0-8248-2884-4; ISBN-10: ISBN 0-8248-2884-4
Further reading and references
Chavannes, Édouard (1900): Documents sur les Tou-kiue (Turcs) occidentaux. Paris, Librairie d’Amérique et d’Orient. Reprint: Taipei. Cheng Wen Publishing Co. 1969.
Findley, Carter Vaughn. 2005. The Turks in World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516770-8; 0-19-517726-6 (pbk.)
Charles Warren Hostler, The Turks of Central Asia, (Greenwood Press, November 1993), ISBN 0-275-93931-6
H.B. Paksoy ALPAMYSH: Central Asian Identity under Russian Rule
(Hartford: AACAR, 1989)
Peter B. Golden, An introduction to the history of the Turkic peoples: Ethnogenesis and state-formation in medieval and early modern Eurasia and the Middle East, (Otto Harrassowitz (Wiesbaden) 1992) ISBN 3-447-03274-X
Colin Heywood, The Turks (The Peoples of Europe), (Blackwell 2005), ISBN 978-0631158974
Baskakov, N.A. 1962, 1969. Introduction to the study of the Turkic languages. Moscow. (In Russian)
Boeschoten, Hendrik & Lars Johanson. 2006. Turkic languages in contact. Turcologica, Bd. 61. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3447052120
Clausen, Gerard. 1972. An etymological dictionary of pre-thirteenth-century Turkish. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Deny, Jean et al. 1959-1964. Philologiae Turcicae Fundamenta. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
Johanson, Lars & Éva Agnes Csató (ed.). 1998. The Turkic languages. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-08200-5.
Johanson, Lars. 1998. "The history of Turkic." In: Johanson & Csató, pp. 81-125. Classification of Turkic languages
Johanson, Lars. 1998. "Turkic languages." In: Encyclopaedia Britannica. CD 98. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 5 September. 2007. Turkic languages: Linguistic history
Menges, K. H. 1968. The Turkic languages and peoples: An introduction to Turkic studies. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
Öztopçu, Kurtuluş. 1996. Dictionary of the Turkic languages: English, Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Tatar, Turkish, Turkmen, Uighur, Uzbek. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415141982
Samoilovich, A. N. 1922. Some additions to the classification of the Turkish languages. Petrograd. Classification of Türkic languages
Schönig, Claus. 1997-1998. "A new attempt to classify the Turkic languages I-III." Turkic Languages 1:1.117–133, 1:2.262–277, 2:1.130–151.
Voegelin, C.F. & F.M. Voegelin. 1977. Classification and index of the World's languages. New York: Elsevier.
Amanjolov A.S., "History of тhe Ancient Turkic Script", Almaty, "Mektep", 2003, ISBN 9965-16-204-2
Baichorov S.Ya., "Ancient Turkic runic monuments of the Europe", Stavropol, 1989 (In Russian)
Ishjatms N., "Nomads In Eastern Central Asia", in the "History of civilizations of Central Asia", Volume 2, UNESCO Publishing, 1996, ISBN 92-3-102846-4
Kyzlasov I.L., "Runic Scripts of Eurasian Steppes", Moscow, Eastern Literature, 1994, ISBN 5-02-017741-5
Malov S.E., "Monuments of the ancient Turkic inscriptions. Texts and research", M.-L., 1951 (In Russian)
Mukhamadiev A., "Turanian Writing", in "Problems Of Lingo-Ethno-History Of The Tatar People", Kazan, 1995, ISBN 5-201-08300 (Азгар Мухамадиев, "Туранская Письменность", "Проблемы лингвоэтноистории татарского народа", Казань, 1995. с.38, ISBN 5-201-08300, (In Russian)
Vasiliev D.D. Graphical fund of Turkic runiform writing monuments in Asian areal. М., 1983, (In Russian)
Vasiliev D.D. Corpus of Turkic runiform monuments in the basin of Enisei. М., 1983, (In Russian)Further Information
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As long as your link remains in place, we'll keep our link to you right here. Please play fair - our crawlers are watching. Your site must be closely related to this one's topic. Any kind of spamming, dubious practises or removing the link will result in your link from us being dropped and, potentially, your whole site being banned. |
